All articles

Research library

CJC-1295 and Ipamorelin — the science behind GHRH and ghrelin receptor synergy

CJC-1295 and Ipamorelin act on different receptor classes — GHRH-R and the ghrelin receptor — to amplify the natural pulsatile growth hormone pulse. This article covers how the two mechanisms complement each other and why the combination produces cleaner GH release than either compound alone.

Mitochondrial peptides — an overview of the emerging mitokine class

Mitochondrial-derived peptides (MDPs) are a recently characterised class of signalling molecules encoded in the mitochondrial genome that act as systemic stress signals. This overview covers the known MDPs — humanin, MOTS-c, SHLP2 — their receptor targets, and what the mitokine concept means for understanding mitochondria as endocrine organs.

Epitalon and telomere biology — the tetrapeptide telomerase activator from the Khavinson program

Epitalon (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) is a synthetic tetrapeptide derived from epithalamin that activates telomerase, extends telomere length in cell culture models, and modulates pineal melatonin secretion. This article covers the telomere shortening biology, the Khavinson research program, and what the preclinical data shows about cellular ageing mechanisms.

NAD+ and the sirtuin longevity pathway — why mitochondrial redox state governs ageing biology

NAD+ is a coenzyme central to mitochondrial energy metabolism whose decline with age activates the sirtuin longevity pathway deficit. This article covers the NAD+/NADH ratio as a metabolic signal, how sirtuins read it, and what the preclinical data on NAD+ precursors reveals about the sirtuin-PARP competition that determines whether the cell repairs or ages.

Peptide bioregulators — the Khavinson framework for tissue-specific gene expression modulation

Peptide bioregulators are short di- to tetrapeptides derived from tissue extracts that modulate gene expression in a tissue-specific manner. This overview covers the Khavinson research program, the proposed chromatin interaction mechanism, and the evidence base for the major bioregulator peptides across thymus, pineal, vascular, and connective tissue targets.

Research peptides: complete guide to mechanisms, categories, and evidence

A comprehensive reference covering all major categories of research peptides: tissue repair, cognitive enhancement, metabolic regulation, longevity, and mitochondrial function. Covers mechanisms, evidence quality, regulatory status, and cross-category comparisons.

Retatrutide — triple receptor agonism and the glucagon contribution to metabolic therapy

Retatrutide adds glucagon receptor agonism to the GLP-1R and GIPR dual agonist framework, producing Phase 2 weight loss data of approximately 24% at 48 weeks. This article covers why glucagon receptor activation — counterintuitive for a metabolic compound — contributes to fat loss through thermogenesis and hepatic lipid clearance.

Insulin resistance: mechanisms of metabolic dysfunction and intervention targets

Insulin resistance is the central defect in type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome, driven by ectopic lipid accumulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammatory signalling, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. This review covers the molecular mechanisms and the peptide and metabolic interventions that target them.

KPV — the tripeptide anti-inflammatory derived from alpha-MSH

KPV is the C-terminal tripeptide of alpha-MSH with potent anti-inflammatory activity through NF-κB inhibition and MC1R activation. This article covers the inflammatory cascade it targets, its bioavailability relative to full-length MSH, and the gut epithelium research.

Growth hormone secretagogues — pulsatile GH release, IGF-1, and the anti-ageing evidence base

Growth hormone secretagogues stimulate endogenous pulsatile GH release rather than replacing it, preserving the physiological pulse architecture that exogenous GH overrides. This article covers somatotroph biology, the IGF-1 axis, the difference between secretagogue and exogenous GH pharmacology, and what the longevity and body composition data shows.

GLP-1 receptor agonists and cardiovascular outcomes: evidence from MACE trials

GLP-1 receptor agonists demonstrate significant reductions in major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) across multiple large randomised trials. This review examines the LEADER, SUSTAIN-6, REWIND, and SELECT trial data and the proposed mechanisms behind cardiovascular protection.

Epigenetic clocks and peptide interventions — what biological age measurement tells us about repair protocols

Epigenetic clocks measure biological age through DNA methylation patterns at specific CpG sites, and several peptide interventions have produced measurable clock reversals in preclinical and early clinical research. This article covers how the Horvath, GrimAge, and DunedinPACE clocks work, what they measure, and what the Yamanaka factor and peptide intervention data means for ageing biology.

Dihexa: hepatocyte growth factor signalling and synaptic potentiation

Dihexa (PNB-0408) is a small peptide derived from angiotensin IV that potentiates hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) signalling at the MET receptor, driving synaptogenesis and cognitive enhancement in preclinical models. This review covers its mechanism, evidence base, and research context.

Tirzepatide dual agonism — the GIP paradox and why adding a second incretin works

Tirzepatide co-activates GLP-1R and GIPR simultaneously, producing weight loss and glycaemic outcomes that exceed GLP-1 monotherapy. The GIP contribution is paradoxical — GIPR agonism and antagonism both appear to reduce body weight — and this article covers the current mechanistic explanation and the central GIP receptor hypothesis.

Yamanaka factors and partial reprogramming: resetting the epigenetic clock

Partial cellular reprogramming using Yamanaka factors (Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, c-Myc) transiently reverses epigenetic age in somatic cells without inducing pluripotency. This review examines the mechanistic basis, key experimental findings, and the distinction between full and partial reprogramming.

MOTS-c — the mitochondrial-encoded peptide that acts as a metabolic stress sensor

MOTS-c is a 16-amino acid peptide encoded within the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene that translocates to the nucleus during metabolic stress, activating AMPK and the folate-methionine cycle to restore metabolic homeostasis. This article covers its discovery, nuclear translocation mechanism, and what the exercise and metabolic stress data reveals about its role in adaptation.

PT-141 and the melanocortin pathway — receptor pharmacology of bremelanotide

PT-141 (bremelanotide) activates melanocortin receptors in the central nervous system to produce arousal effects independent of vascular mechanisms. This article covers the MC3R and MC4R pharmacology, the hypothalamic circuit involved, and how this differs from phosphodiesterase inhibitors.

Thymalin and thymosin alpha-1: thymic peptides and immune ageing

Thymalin and thymosin alpha-1 are thymus-derived peptides with complementary roles in immune reconstitution and T-cell maturation. This review examines their mechanisms, preclinical longevity data, and clinical evidence in immunodeficiency contexts.

Semax — BDNF induction, ACTH fragment pharmacology, and the cognitive enhancement mechanism

Semax is a heptapeptide analogue of the ACTH 4-10 fragment that increases BDNF and NGF expression in the CNS, modulates dopamine and serotonin systems, and produces nootropic and neuroprotective effects in rodent and early human research. This article covers the receptor pharmacology and what the BDNF induction mechanism means for cognitive function.

Senolytic peptides and cellular senescence: targeted clearance of ageing cells

Cellular senescence — the irreversible arrest of damaged cells — drives tissue inflammation and age-related pathology through the SASP. This review examines peptide-based senolytic strategies targeting senescent cell survival pathways.

Humanin and the SHLP family: mitochondrial-derived peptides in ageing and metabolic disease

Humanin and small humanin-like peptides (SHLPs 1–6) are mitochondrial-derived peptides encoded in the 16S rRNA gene. This review examines their cytoprotective, metabolic, and longevity-associated mechanisms.

Semaglutide weight loss mechanisms — why albumin acylation changed metabolic pharmacology

Semaglutide's once-weekly dosing and exceptional weight loss outcomes stem from two engineering decisions: DPP-IV-resistant amino acid substitution and C18 fatty diacid acylation enabling albumin binding. This article covers the half-life extension chemistry and the defended body weight setpoint biology that explains the STEP trial outcomes.

SS-31 — the mitochondria-targeted peptide and its cardiolipin interaction mechanism

SS-31 (elamipretide) is a tetrapeptide that selectively concentrates in the inner mitochondrial membrane through electrostatic interaction with cardiolipin, restoring electron transport chain efficiency and reducing mitochondrial ROS production. This article covers the cardiolipin biology, the targeting mechanism, and what the preclinical data shows across cardiac, renal, and neurological models.

Thymosin beta-4 (TB-500): mechanisms of tissue repair and regeneration

TB-500 is a synthetic analogue of thymosin beta-4, a ubiquitous actin-sequestering peptide involved in cell migration, wound healing, and angiogenesis. This review covers the mechanistic evidence for its regenerative effects.

BPC-157 tissue repair mechanisms — what the receptor pharmacology actually says

BPC-157 is a stable gastric pentadecapeptide with documented effects on tendon, muscle, gut, and nerve tissue. This breakdown covers the growth factor receptor interactions, nitric oxide pathway involvement, and what the preclinical data means for repair protocols.

Selank — the anxiolytic heptapeptide and its GABA, enkephalin, and BDNF mechanisms

Selank is a synthetic analogue of the endogenous immunomodulatory peptide tuftsin that produces anxiolytic effects through GABA-A modulation, enkephalin stabilisation, and BDNF upregulation. This article covers each mechanism and what distinguishes Selank's pharmacological profile from benzodiazepine and SSRI approaches to anxiety.

GLP-1 receptor agonists — the three-part mechanism behind glucagon-like peptide therapy

GLP-1 receptor agonists produce weight loss and glycaemic control through three concurrent mechanisms: glucose-dependent insulin secretion, gastric emptying delay, and central appetite suppression via hypothalamic GLP-1 receptors. This article covers all three and why their combination is pharmacologically unique.

What are research peptides — a plain-language mechanistic overview

Research peptides are short amino acid chains that act as signalling molecules. This overview covers how they differ from proteins, how they reach their target receptors, and why structural specificity determines biological effect.

GHK-Cu — the copper tripeptide and its collagen, wound healing, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms

GHK-Cu (glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine copper complex) is an endogenous tripeptide that declines with age and activates over 4,000 genes involved in collagen synthesis, wound repair, anti-inflammatory signalling, and antioxidant defence. This article covers the copper binding chemistry, the TGF-β and decorin pathway interactions, and the skin and wound healing data.